Notes - InterAcademy Council

National Research Council, Cities Transformed: Demographic Change and Its Implications in the Developing World, Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2003 (accessible at www.nap.edu).
United Nations Development Programme, 'Human Development Indicators,' Human Development Report 2003, UNDP, 2003(accessible at www.undp.org/hdr2003).
In this report, national S&T capacities are categorized qualitatively as S&T advanced, S&T proficient, S&T developing, and S&T lagging. It should be clear that country groupings - industrialized nations vs. developing countries, or S&T-advanced vs. S&T-proficient vs. S&T-developing vs. S&T-lagging countries - are not absolute categories. Even if one were to say that the industrialized nations encompass both S&T-advanced and S&T-proficient countries and that the developing countries encompass S&T-developing and S&T-lagging countries, this would still not be enough. Some countries may be advanced in some aspects of agricultural technology, for example, but lagging in information and communications technology. Nevertheless, the countries concerned will recognize themselves and should be able to select from the report the recommendations that are most appropriate to their specific needs. For more information on national S&T classifications, see Christine Wagner, et al,. Science and Technology Collaboration: Building Capacity in Developing Countries? (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, 2001) (accessible at www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR1357.0/MR1357.0.pdf); and Robert Watson, Michael Crawford, and Sara Farley, 'Strategic Approaches to Science and Technology in Development,' World Bank Research Policy Working Paper Series, No. 3026. World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2003 (accessible at econ.worldbank.org/files/25709_wps3026.pdf).
United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2003: Millennium Development Goals: A Compact Among Nations to End Poverty (New York, NY: United Nations, 2003) (accessible at www.undp.org/hdr2003).
United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2003: Millennium Development Goals: A Compact Among Nations to End Poverty (New York, NY: United Nations, 2003) (accessible at www.undp.org/hdr2003).
InterAcademy Panel on International Issues, 'Transition to Sustainability in the 21st Century: The Contribution of Science and Technology.' Conference of Academies, May 2000, Tokyo, Japan; IAP Secretariat, Trieste, Italy (accessible at www.interacademies.net/iap).
See, for example, World Bank and UNESCO, Higher Education in Developing Countries: Peril and Promise, Final Report of the Task Force on Higher Education and Society, Washington, D.C., 2000 (available at publications.worldbank.org/ecommerce); UNESCO, Globalization and the Market in Higher Education: Quality, Accreditation, and Qualifications, Paris, France: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, (available at upo.unesco.org); and UNESCO, Universities and Globalization: Private Linkages, Public Trust, Paris, France: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 2003 (available at upo.unesco.org).
R&D investments here include all expenditures within a country for basic, strategic, applied, and adaptive research, and development of new products and services - from all sources, including governmental and nongovernmental organizations and for-profit companies, for both nondefense and defense purposes.
This question is replete with definitional and measurement complexities, but deserves to be addressed. For instance, the reporting numbers for research and development have been distorted for years by the conflation of defense and non-defense research and development. It is worthwhile to point out that, whether in the former Soviet Union or in North Korea today, massive spending on defense R&D did not immediately translate into a meaningful improvement of economic well-being for those countries' citizens, or even an increased level of international economic competitiveness for their industries. Shares of defense research and development in the national R&D enterprise have declined in most OECD countries since the end of the Cold War (with an enormous drop in Russia, accompanied by a drop of GDP as well). Between 1988 and 1998, spending on defense research and development in the United States went from 31 percent to 15 percent, in France from 21 percent to 7 percent, and in the United Kingdom from 17 percent to 12 percent. In light of this trend, some analysts believe, we can now assess research and development as a percent of GDP without major risk of distortion from the defense/nondefense element; see U.S. National Science Board, Science and Technology Indicators 2002, Washington, D.C., 2002, pp. 4-48 (accessible at www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02).
U.S. National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2002 (Arlington, Virginia: National Science Foundation, 2002), text table 4-13, pg. 4-47 (accessible at www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02); United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2003 (New York, NY: UNDP, 2003) ) (accessible at www.undp.org/hdr2003).
The Commission of the European Communities has agreed to set a goal of R&D funding at 3 percent of EU GDP by 2010, of which two-thirds would be funded by the private sector; see Commission of the European Communities, 'Investing in Research, An Action Plan for Europe,' communications from the Commission, April 30, 2003; Brussels, Belgium, 2003 (accessible at http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/com/cnc/2003/com2003_0226en02.pdf).
U.S. National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2002 (Arlington, Virginia: National Science Foundation, 2002), text table 4-13, pg. 4-47 (accessible at www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02); United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2003 (New York, NY: UNDP, 2003) (accessible at www.undp.org/hdr2003).
National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2002 (Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2002) (accessible at www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02).
For more information, access www.uct.za/misc/iapo/ushepia/middle.htm.
National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2002 (Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2002) (accessible at www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02).
National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2002 (Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2002) (accessible at www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02).
Carl Dahlman and Karl Andersson, eds., Korea and the Knowledge-Based Economy: Making the Transition, Joint World Bank-OECD study (Washington, D.C.: World Bank Institute, The World Bank, 2000) (available at publications.worldbank.org/ecommerce).
National Research Council, Patents in the Knowledge-Based Economy (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2003) (accessible at www.nap.edu).
P. Troullier, et al, 'Drug Development for Neglected Diseases: A Deficient Market and a Public Health Policy Failure,' The Lancet, 359:2188-94, 2002.
TRIPS requires all World Trade Organization members to provide minimum standards of protection for a wide range of intellectual property rights, including copyrights, patents, trademarks, industrial designs, geographical indications, semiconductor topographies, and undisclosed information. In doing so, TRIPS incorporates provisions from many existing international intellectual property agreements, such as the Paris and Berne Conventions administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization. TRIPS, however, also introduces a number of new obligations, particularly in relation to geographical indications, patents, trade secrets, and measures governing how intellectual property rights should be enforced. See 'Integrating Intellectual Property Rights and Development Policy,' Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, London, 2002, (accessible at www.iprcommission.org).
TRIPS took effect on 1 January 1995. World Trade Organization (WTO) members considered to be industrialized nations were given one year to comply, while developing countries and transition economies were given until 1 January 2000 - although for developing countries an additional 5 years was provided before protection of new areas such as pharmaceuticals had to be introduced. Least-developed countries are expected to enact TRIPS by 2006, although the Doha Ministerial Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health allowed them a further 10 years with regard to pharmaceutical products. See 'Integrating Intellectual Property Rights and Development Policy,' Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, London, 2002, (accessible at www.iprcommission.org).