A production ecological approach can identify problems and the potential solutions for increasing agricultural productivity in priority farming systems. Science does more than simply breed new crops for farmers to use. Science is also needed to understand what is happening in the fields, making it possible to remedy the problems that arise. For each of the four priority farming systems selected by the IAC Panel, there are many technological opportunities for enhancing productivity and profitability on an environmentally sustainable basis. A production ecological approach examines the factors defining, limiting and reducing crop yield, as well as those that interrupt the distribution of foods after they have been grown. This approach allows for a comprehensive identification and prioritizing of agro-ecological constraints, thereby identifying the most promising technological opportunities for improvement.

These opportunities can be categorized according to their effects on four classes of factors:

1. Growth- and yield-defining factors (genetic potential, climate and weather): High-yielding varieties of many different crops are commonly grown throughout the world. These varieties have been the key to a dramatic increase in yield. In the past, for example, high-yield wheat and rice formed the heart of the Green Revolution in Asia. Given the diversity of production environments and farming systems in Africa, crop improvement research needs to use approaches that develop new varieties with a genetic potential specifically suited to local niches, placing a premium on participation and feedback from farmers.
2. Growth- and yield-limiting factors (water availability, plant nutrition, soil fertility and labour): Crop growth and yield are limited by poor plant nutrition and uncertain water availability during the growing cycle. Depletion of soil fertility, in fact, is a major biophysical cause of the low per capita food production in Africa. This loss of nutrients can be counteracted by the application of appropriate fertilizers. Thus, research should be directed at understanding and resolving the factors that limit access to fertilizers, as well as those that can make fertilizer use more efficient. In addition, research is needed on the factors that can make irrigation more accessible and less costly for small farmers - and on techniques for improving integrated soil, water and nutrient management.
3. Growth- and yield-reducing factors (weeds, pests, diseases and pollutants) : Pests, diseases and weeds are a huge problem in nearly all farming systems around the world. Africa is no different. Cassava Mosaic Disease, for example, can completely destroy a crop in heavily infected areas. Whereas the possibilities for chemical control of pests and diseases are restricted because of limited availability and cost of pesticides, farmers find resistant varieties of plants to be a powerful tool whenever the appropriate varieties are available. Technology-driven options require the development of varieties with properties such as salt tolerance and resistance to the prevailing pests and diseases. Here, biological pest controls can offer a number of excellent alternatives to chemical control. Genes conferring resistance to pests and diseases have been transferred to certain target crops from a wide range of sources, far exceeding the biological constraints of conventional plant breeding. Although such biological pest control techniques reflect powerful alternatives to chemical pesticides and herbicides, these technologies have not yet been effectively applied to most African challenges.
4. Post-harvest losses that reduce the distribution of foods to the marketplace: Much of the food produced in Africa is lost in post-harvest processes. Some studies report staggering losses, ranging in some countries from 10 to 100 percent. Sweet potato, plantain, tomatoes, bananas and citrus fruit, for example, often perish before reaching the market. A reduction of this wastage would benefit growers and consumers alike. Local processing plants established throughout the African countryside could provide a critical solution to this problem. Local agro-processing not only restricts post-harvest losses; it also increases the economic value of harvested agricultural products. A policy oriented towards such development would produce much more innovation in food processing and distribution in Africa.

The IAC Panel concludes that, in harnessing science to increase the productivity of African agriculture, the application of a production ecological approach will be critical for identifying both problems and their potential solutions.

The correct and diligent application of a range of technology options can increase crop and animal production, while making more effective and efficient use of land, labour and capital. Improving agricultural productivity and food security in Africa will require a number of different approaches. These range from production developments focused on removing constraints in priority farming systems, to yield gap analyses for many of Africa's crops, to an emphasis on the mechanisms for adapting technologies to farmers' needs.

The IAC Panel is encouraged by the availability of technology options and the experience with their application in some African farming systems. There are ample opportunities to bridge yield gaps and increase productivity. But to do this will require a systematic fine-tuning of the technology options to improve adoption.

There are many documented examples of successful productivity-enhancing innovations. The challenges are both to scale them up and to develop new options for the future. For example, African agriculture should derive maximum benefit from both conventional plant breeding and biotechnology. Rapid developments in information and communication technologies - such as the Internet, the World Wide Web, and cellular telephones - also provide important new opportunities for improving agricultural productivity and food security in Africa. Information technology has also stimulated the development of comprehensive computation models, such as models of crop and animal growth. New mapping technologies provide important information for African farmers, scientists, and policy makers. Tools such as geographic information systems (GIS), global positioning system (GPS) and thematic maps of seasonal movements of livestock reinforce the identification of relevant know-how. Such mapping techniques, for example, can help to identify land boundaries, establishing the land ownership or tenure necessary for obtaining credit for agricultural investments.

The IAC Panel suggests the desirability of establishing African centres of agricultural research excellence (ACARE) to undertake basic research leading to the development and use of these and other novel new technologies for improving African agriculture. Such centres should be designed to provide a source of new ideas and methods for national agricultural research systems.

It must be emphasized that the application of science and technology alone will not have a significant impact on improving productivity or on reducing the numbers of food insecure. There are complementary investments and policies that will also be required to achieve sustainable productivity growth and reduce food and nutrition insecurity. These include fair, competitive and efficient markets, revitalization of the private sector, improved governance, investments in sanitation, drinking water and health services, and broad policy and institutional innovation to create the enabling conditions for science and technology to express their potential at local, national, regional and global levels.

The IAC Panel recommends the following actions for improving agricultural productivity and food security in Africa through science and technology strategies:

Near-term impact

• Adopt a production ecological approach with a primary focus on the four identified continental priority farming systems. These priority farming systems represent agricultural bright spots, in as much as the increased agricultural productivity anticipated will improve the welfare of large numbers of food insecure people.
• Pursue a strategy of integrated sustainable intensification. The aim of science and technology should be to produce integrated soil, water, nutrient, and pest management approaches that are effective for African farmers. Knowledge-intensive and technology-driven approaches must be integrated with indigenous knowledge and farmers' needs and demands to ensure the appropriateness and adoption of these innovations.
• Adopt a market-led productivity improvement strategy to strengthen the competitive ability of smallholder farmers. Farmers should be able to respond effectively to price signals in the marketplace, aided by information and communications technology. This will help achieve a balance between supply and demand and provide incentives for farmers to close existing yield gaps, allowing them to become more income secure in the process.
• Reduce land degradation and replenish soil fertility. Soil health and fertility management holds the key to enhancing crop productivity in Africa. An integrated approach that includes exploiting the effects of both inorganic and organic fertilizers on soil, water and crop productivity can break the downward spiral of land degradation.
• Recognize the potential of rainfed agriculture and accord it priority. Because the possibilities for economically viable and environmentally benign irrigation development in Africa are limited, rainfed agriculture will remain the dominant system for decades to come. This type of farming, therefore, offers the best opportunities for the improved productivity that reduces poverty and food insecurity.
• Explore higher-scale integrated catchment strategies for natural resource management. The projected water scarcities in many regions of Africa require strategies and policies for its sustainable use to address the increasingly competitive multi-sectoral demands for water. These strategies should be explored to optimize land and water use to safeguard biodiversity, manage forest resources, and conserve native vegetation and wildlife habitat.
• Enhance the use of mechanical power. Encourage the local manufacture of agricultural machinery and equipment for all phases of agricultural production so as to enhance development and reduce the African countries' dependence for such goods on the industrialized countries of the world.
• Embrace information and communication technology at all levels. Vastly improved access to information and communications technology is essential to realize these opportunities and to reach the isolated and excluded villages of Africa.

Intermediate-term impact

• Bridge the genetic divide. A substantial amount of additional investment is needed to respond to the specific needs of African farmers if they are to derive benefit from the integrated application of both conventional breeding techniques and biotechnology. Africa cannot rely on external developments in this field. Biotechnology has a significant gestation period before its impact is realized. Without substantial investments now - including by the private sector - Africa will be left behind. The full range of biotechnology components, including the appropriate use of genetically modified organisms, needs immediate attention to help improve eco-farming.
• Improve the coping strategies of farmers in response to environmental variability and climate change. The severe constraints in African agriculture include a high risk of crop failure and animal death because of the variability in weather, particularly rainfall. Climate change highlights the necessity to develop anticipatory short- and long-term forecasting research, and this requires the training of scientists.

Long-term impact

• Promote the conservation, sustainability and equitable use of biodiversity. Africa has a rich treasure trove of biodiversity in flora and fauna. In many circumstances, properly structured private-public sector partnerships can provide a means of exploiting this potential through the creation of niche markets. A market in medicinal plants is one possibility. Conservation and commercialization strategies must be mutually reinforcing, so as to create an economic stake in conservation.

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